A1 (primary auditory area), 46, 55, 115

action potentials/spikes, 56, 110, 162, 163

AI, see artificial intelligence (AI) alien limb syndrome, 200

altered door experiment, 87–89, 119

Alzheimer’s disease, 200

analogies, 180, 181, 188

false, 192–93, 216, 227

finding, 189–90, 191–92

intelligent machines, 209

prediction by, 183, 184–87, 203

animals, intelligence in, 177–80

anterior cortex, 102–3

anticipation, 148, 149

anticipatory cells, 237–41

see also prediction

artificial intelligence (AI), 3, 4, 5, 9–22, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, 40, 65–66, 88, 90, 136, 209, 214–15, 220, 233, 235

association areas/regions, 46, 47, 60–61, 114, 117, 119, 120, 122, 123, 125, 130

in memory recall, 71, 73, 74

attention, mechanism, 171–74

attention when something is wrong, 86, 89, 93, 95–96

auditory cortex, 63, 81, 115, 117, 131

auto-associative memory, 29–31, 70, 73–75, 76, 80, 105, 164

used to store sequences of patterns, 144, 146

basal ganglia, 41, 168, 169

Bayes, Thomas, 90

Bayesian networks, 91

behavior, 18, 38, 104, 120

and intelligence, 6, 29, 32–33, 97, 100, 101–5, 231

means of exploiting structure of world, 178, 179–80

neocortex in, 69, 104, 120, 130–31, 144–46, 157–58

perception and, 157

prediction and, 89, 97–98

behaviorism, 16

Beksey, Georg von, 58

Blocks World, 17

Brahe, Tycho, 193

brain(s), 1–2, 3, 9–10, 21–22, 32, 52–53, 85

architecture of, 25, 26, 40

capacity of, 224–26

complexity of, 174

as computer, 65–68

brain(s) computer different from, 2, 5, 12, 40, 65–69

computer simulating, 21

criteria for understanding, 25

evolution of, 98–99

flexibility of, 53–54, 62, 228

as machine, 65–66

models of, 25, 233

and patterns, 62–64, 199–200

physical variation, 188–89

predictions, 6, 86–87, 88–89, 90, 96, 97

storing sequences of sequences, 129

structure of, 23–24, 26, 182

time-related constraints, 224

training, 226

Broca’s area, 44, 50

building intelligent machines, 1, 2, 4–5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 29, 35–36, 37, 41, 62–63, 89, 176, 203–13, 234, 235

challenges in, 210–13

creativity and, 183

ethical/moral issues, 213–17

recipe for, 209

Turing and, 14

why build, 217–22

capacity (intelligent machines), 210–11, 224–26

central sulcus, 103

cerebellum, 41, 168, 169

Chinese Room (thought experiment), 18–20, 38, 86, 105, 218

cochlea, 58–59, 81

coincidences, 163, 164

columns, cortical, see cortical columns computation/computing, 13–15, 68–69

computer(s), 9, 13, 28, 37–38, 90

brain as, 65–68

intelligence, 5, 14–15, 16, 20, 21

pattern recognition, 190–91

speech recognition, 218–19

connectionists, 24, 29, 37, 39

connectivity, 109–10

intelligent machines, 210, 211–12

in neural networks, 24, 45

consciousness, 6, 193–200

cortex, see neocortex/cortex cortical algorithm, 51, 52, 55, 62, 63, 64, 80, 96, 99, 101, 115, 122, 124, 125, 127, 204, 215, 216, 221, 224, 226

finding patterns, 228

cortical columns, 139–42, 144, 146, 147, 148–52, 154–55, 156, 159, 163, 164

auto-associative memory formed out of, 144

basic unit of prediction, 141

cortical hierarchy, 56, 105, 137, 164–65

alternate path up, 171–74

alternate view of, 123–25, 123f

feedback, 162–63

higher regions, 149, 150, 153

hippocampus at top of, 170

information flowing up/down, 46–47, 141–42, 142/, 147, 158–61, 162, 167, 171–74

invariant representations, 121, 122

memories, 166, 171, 188

predictions moving down, 238–39

reciprocal connections, 161–62

representations in, 243–44

sequences in, 130–33, 158

and unanticipated events, 241–42

cortical layers, 42

anticipatory cells in, 238–39

learning and memory in, 164

in cortical region, 147–66, 172

cortical region/areas, 50–51, 62, 113, 114, 120–25, 137–41, 146–47, 157, 158–61, 170–71

anticipatory activity in, 237–38

building sequences, 165–66

classifying inputs, 147–48

communicating with each other, 144–47

comparing expected/observed columns, 156

connections between, 114, 172, 211

and creativity, 183

imagination in, 200–1

invariant representations in, 124–25, 244–45

layers and columns in, 138f

making predictions, 147, 153–56

“name cells,” 239–40

sequence of patterns in, 128, 129–37, 147, 148–49, 150–53

size of, 138–39, 141

subregions, 122, 123, 124–25

cortical sheet, 42, 45, 47, 55, 99, 110, 168, 180, 211

creativity, 6, 89, 183–93, 213

differences in, 187–89

training for, 189–92

Crick, Francis, 10, 13, 43

culture, and world model, 202, 203

Darwin, Charles, 33, 50

Decade of the Brain, 31, 233

declarative memories, 196–97

Deep Blue, 17, 18, 20–21

dendrites, 48, 162, 163, 164

dinner napkin analogy, 42, 109, 122

DNA and genetic memory, 178, 182

dolphins, 103–4

Einstein, Albert, 49, 189, 225

Eliza, 16–17

emotion, 208, 216, 230

Erdos, Paul, 8

Essen, David van, 45

ethical/moral issues in building intelligent macines, 213–17

evolution, 33, 37, 38, 39, 41, 170, 208–9, 225

beginning of intelligence in, 177, 178, 179–80

of neocortex, 42, 99, 101, 103, 104, 180

expertise, 166–68, 188, 227

expert systems, 17–18

face cell, 113

face recognition, 77, 81–82, 111, 113, 121

feedback, 25, 26, 31, 32, 45, 90, 113, 161–64

in auto-associative memories, 29–30

delayed, 146, 147

folded, 156, 201

in sensory regions, 46

feedforward-feedback process, 113–14, 153

Felleman, Daniel, 45

filling in, 93–94, 99

fixation(s), 57, 58, 94–95, 110, 111, 112, 116, 128, 130, 132

forms platonic, 78–79, 82

Fried, Itzhak, 108

functional imaging, 31–32, 52–53, 245

functional areas/regions, 44, 45, 52–54, 109–10

functionalism, 36–38

genius, 168, 183

goal-oriented behavior, 158

Graffiti, 28, 191–92

Grid Systems, 21, 22, 175

Grossberg, Stephen, 90, 156, 201

Guillery, Ray, 172

hallucination, 63–64

hearing, 51, 120, 156–57, 158, 198

invariant representations, 114, 114f, 115, 116

spatial/temporal patterns in, 58–59

Hebb, Donald O., 164

Hebbian learning, 48, 164

hierarchical memory system, 208–10, 221–22, 235

hierarchical structure of neocortex, 6, 25, 70, 107, 109, 125–27, 129, 176, 180

see also cortical hierarchy

hierarchy, 44–47, 55

of intelligent systems, 231

learning in, 165–68

patterns stored in, 70

hippocampus, 42, 168–71, 241

Hoff, Ted, 11

imagination, 40, 156, 177, 200–1

information flows, 45, 54, 69, 113

in brain, 55–57

sensory hierarchies, 117–20, 118f, 124

within six-layered cortex, 52

up and down cortical hierarchy, 46–47, 141–42, 147, 158–61, 162, 167, 171–74

inhibitory cells, 147–48, 151

input, flow of over time, 116

input neurons, 25, 26

input-output fallacy, 31–32, 37

intelligence, 1, 3, 11, 225–26

animal, 177–80

and behavior, 6, 29, 32–33, 97, 231

intelligence and emotion, 216

epochs of, 182

existence proof of, 14

future of, 205–33

human, 180

measure of, 210

memory and prediction in, 99–105

real intelligence, 4–5, 13

intelligence tests, 96

intelligent machines, 5, 32, 33, 39, 41, 55, 90, 206, 232

capabilities of, 222–33

capacity, 210–11, 224–26

connectivity, 210, 211–12

possibility of building, 203–13

progress toward, 232–33

replicability, 226–27

as threat, 214–17

uses of, 217–22

see also building intelligent machines invariance, 79, 131

invariant memory, 105, 203, 228

in predictions, 183–84

invariant prediction, 153–56, 155f

invariant representations, 69, 75–82, 83–84, 107, 108, 109–16, 153, 180, 203

converting into predictions, 143–44

formed in cortical hierarchy, 121, 122, 243–44

forming, in hearing, vision, and touch, 114f

found in all cortical areas, 124–25, 134, 244–45

motor behavior represented in hierarchy of, 157–58

sequences and, 128, 130, 137, 138

IT, 45, 110, 112–13, 121, 122, 125, 129, 130, 157, 167, 172, 189

Joy, Bill, 214

Kasparov, Gary, 17

Keller, Helen, 62, 64

Kepler, Johannes, 192–93

kludge, 37

Koch, Christof, 108, 193

Kreiman, Gabriel, 108

Kurzweil, Ray, 214

language, 12, 16, 18, 23, 40, 64, 97, 102, 104, 125, 181–82

invention of, 182, 183

machines understanding, 218, 219, 220

layers, cortical, see cortical layers learned sequences name cells active during, 240

learning, 6, 31, 78, 164–68, 178, 179–80, 188, 226–27

essence of, 136

hippocampus in, 169

Llinas, Rodolfo, 90

logic gates, 15

Ml, 46

McCulloch, Warren, 15–16

Mackay, D. M., 90

memory, 64, 65–84, 86, 93, 126, 178–79

in consciousness, 199

erasing, 196–97

hierarchical, 166–67

hippocampus and, 168, 169

and intelligence, 99–105, 182

in problem solving, 68–69

memory chip, 206, 211

memory-prediction framework, 5, 104, 105, 107–9, 120, 140–41, 163–64, 177, 180–83, 185, 187–89, 233, 235, 242–43

testable predictions, 237–45

memory recall, 71–72, 73, 82

memory system, 174, 176

adding to sensory input, 99–100, 101, 102, 104

hierarchical, 208–10, 221–22, 235

memory systems, brainlike, 206, 209–11, 212, 215, 216, 224–26, 227, 235

scaling beyond biological brain, 223–32

uses for, 217–18, 219–20

microcolumn, 140

microprocessor, 9, 10, 11, 206, 218, 222

mind, 36, 199, 200, 204, 208

same as brain, 43

as software, 37–38

Moore, Gordon, 10, 11, 217

Moore’s Law, 217, 218

motor behavior, 104, 157–58

motor control, 51, 168–69

motor cortex, 103, 120, 131, 144–45, 157

invariant representations in, 80, 137

language and, 181

motor system, 46, 168

Mountcastle, Vernon, 50–52, 53, 55, 80, 96, 120, 121, 122, 140–41

Mumford, David, 90

music, 40, 80–81, 115, 125, 167, 187

myelin/white matter, 78, 144, 146, 211, 212

name cells, 150–53, 151f, 239–40

active during learned sequences, 240

“names,” 129–30, 132, 136, 151, 159

cortical region forming, 147, 149, 150–53, 151f

neocortex/cortex, 3, 13, 25, 29, 38, 39, 40–42, 43–44, 49–52, 74–75, 99–105, 198, 235

architecture of, 55, 107, 120–21, 126–27

common algorithm/function, 51, 52,

see also cortical algorithm and consciousness, 196, 199–200

evolution of, 42, 99, 101, 103, 104, 180

flexibility of, 53–54, 55, 61–62, 136

formation of, 140

hierarchical structure of, 6, 25, 70, 107, 109, 125–27, 129, 176, 180,

see also cortical hierarchy hierarchies, 44–47

higher regions of, 165, 166

hippocampus and, 170

how it learns, 164–68

information flowing into, 45, 69, 170–71

and intelligence, 6, 98–105

large size, 100, 101, 103, 104, 182

motor control, 168–69

plasticity, 54

prediction(s), 82–84, 88–89, 92–97, 113

six-layered form, 42–43, 47, 48, 51, 52, 56, 69, 107, 109, 139–47

see also cortical layers size of, and intelligence, 180, 181, 183

survival value of, 97

thalamus and, 25

using stored memories, 69–70

neocortical memory, 70–84, 100–1

invariant representations, 75–79

neocortical pyramid, 170, 171

Nestor, 28

NetTalk, 27

neural networks, 5, 11, 23–39, 40, 233, 235

neurons, 42–43, 47–48, 77, 85, 86, 89, 162, 163, 164, 176, 204, 211

coincidence detectors on thin dendrites, 242–43

connections, 24, 25–26, 29–30, 39

evolution of, 179–80

as logic gates, 15–16

and memory, 68, 69, 73, 92

speed of, 66–67, 88, 223

nurture, 187–88, 202–3

object recognition, 113, 116, 136–37

“old”/“primitive” brain, 98, 99–100, 102, 103, 180

emotional systems of, 208, 216

motor system of, 104, 157

Olshausen, Bruno, 170

one-hundred-step rule, 66–68, 78

optic nerve, 55, 56, 110, 199

PalmPilot, 1, 28

pattern classification, 134, 147–48, 136–37, 165, 166

patterns, 56–64, 65, 74, 108, 110, 115–16, 178, 181, 192

analogous, 189

in auto-associative memory, 30–31, 70, 73–75, 144, 146, 181

equivalency, 60–61

grouping, 165

intelligence and, 63

intelligent machines finding, 228, 229, 230, 231

learning as sequence of, 31

in neocortex, 70, 120, 125

in neural networks, 25–26

recognition of, 188

stored as memories, 97

stored in hippocampus, 171

patterns stored in invariant form, 70

transformed, 76–77

unexpected, 152, 159–60, 174, 186–87, see also sequence of patterns

perception(s), 13, 18, 40, 44, 56, 63, 80, 87, 104, 157, 183

Pitts, Walter, 15–16

plasticity, 54, 179–80, 182

Plato, 17, 78

Platonic solids, 192–93

posterior cortex, 102–3

predictability, 128–29

prediction(s), 32, 82–84, 86–87, 88–89, 92–97, 107, 113, 119–20, 136, 138, 147, 148, 153–62, 177, 180, 182, 188, 233, 238–39

and behavior, 97–98, 101

column basic unit of, 141

in consciousness, 199

converting invariant representations into, 143–44

and creativity, 183–84

foundation of intelligence, 84, 89–90, 96, 97, 99–105

in imagination, 200–1

invariant converted to specific, 153–56, 155f

multisensory, 117–19

and reality, 202

using for successful reproduction, 178–79, 180

prediction by analogy, 180, 184–87, 203, 205

predictions, testable, 108, 237–45

primary sensory areas, 45–46, 138

anticipatory cells, 237–38

“primitive” brain, see “old”/“primitive” brain

probabilistic predictions, 92–93

probability theory, 90

proprioceptive system, 59

Proust, Marcel, 74

pyramidal neurons, 48–49

qualia, 196, 197–99

Rao, Rajesh, 90

reality, 63–64, 128–29, 177, 201–4

Redwood Neuroscience Institute, 3–4, 170

religious beliefs, 203

replicability intelligent machines, 226–27

retina, 57, 59, 110–11, 112

robotics, 12, 32, 158, 223, 231

robots, 2, 7, 80, 207–8

S1 (primary somatosensory area), 46

saccade(s), 57, 58, 94–95, 110, 111f, 112, 128–29, 130, 132, 157–58

savants, 225–26

Searle, John, 18–20, 38, 86, 105, 218

senses, 55, 59, 64, 208–9, 228–29

integrating, 117–20

and intelligence, 62

qualitative difference, 198

sensory cortex, 80–81, 120, 157

sensory information/input, 45–46, 55–56, 61, 89, 109, 169, 173

adding memory system to, 99–100, 101, 102, 104

in hierarchies, 117–120, 118f, 123, 124

spatial-temporal patterns, 59

stored/ recalled, 99–100, 101, 102

sensory systems

intelligent machines, 225, 227–32

sequence(s), 127–28, 129, 183–84

forming, 134–35, 165–66

memory of, 166

stored, 84, 144

sequence of patterns, 70–73, 127–28, 129, 130–31, 159

in cortical regions, 128, 129–37, 138

cortical regions learning and recalling, 147, 148–49, 153

storing, 105, 125, 148

sequences of sequences, 129–33

Shakespeare, William, 186

Sherman, Murray, 172

sight, 51, 59, 117, 118, 119, 198

silicon, 10–11, 204, 210–11, 212, 217, 223–24

smart cars, 218, 220–22, 226–27

somatosensory cortex, 46, 56, 72, 115, 116, 117

soul, 78, 199

spatial patterns, 57–59, 63, 65, 81, 110, 164, 199

recalling, 73–74

recognized with brief fixation, 116

speech recognition, 218

stereotypes, 202, 203–4

sulcus/sulci, 44, 189

synapses, 48–49, 66, 140, 141, 162–63, 174, 176

and columns, 148, 149–50

memories stored in, 73

modified by experience, 164

role in cell firing, 163

synesthesia, 198

temporal patterns, 57–59, 63, 65, 81, 110, 199

recalling, 73–74

thalamus, 42, 48, 55, 147, 157

alternate pathway through, 172, 173

current state and current motor behavior communicated within, 145f

neocortex and, 25

Theory of Forms, 78–79

time, 31, 32, 116, 165, 233

in brain function, 25, 26

in touch, 59

in vision, 58

touch, 55, 56, 117, 118, 119, 120, 198

invariant representations, 114, 114f, 115–16

spatial-temporal patterns, 59

training brain, 226

for creativity, 189–92

intelligent machines, 209

representations move down hierarchy during, 243–44

Turing, Alan, 13–14, 15, 18, 29, 105

Turing Machine, see Universal Turing Machines Turing Test, 14, 16, 41, 208, 231–32

Universal Turing Machines, 14, 15, 18, 38

V1 (primary visual area), 45, 47, 50, 110–12, 113, 120–25, 129, 158, 166, 172, 188, 189

columns in, 139

pattern of activity in, 77

size of, 138

V2 and V4, 45–46, 110, 113, 121, 122, 123, 124, 145, 167, 172

vestibular system, 59

vision, 12, 16, 51, 55, 59, 112, 198

intelligent machines and, 218, 220

invariant representations, 114, 114f 116, 124

prediction in, 94–95

spatial/temporal patterns in, 57–58

visual cortex, 46, 54, 63, 110, 119, 124, 145, 157, 167

feedback/feedforward connections in, 113

Weihenmayer, Erik, 61

white matter, 78, 144, 146, 211, 212

Zador, Tony, 237

zombies, 194, 195, 197